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5-HTT, PYY and BDNF
5-HTT is a major component of 5-HT(5-hydroxytryptamine) receptors, that can release neurotransmitters from pre-synaptic neurons and transmit them across the synapses to post-synesthesis cells [13]. 5-HTT is associated with cognitive functions in the hippocampus, striatum and basal ganglia [14]. Serum 5-HTT levels in older AD patients were found to be lower than in young adults [15].
PYY is a tyrosine phosphatase that acts as an epigenetic switch on DNA methylation and is present in high concentrations all cells throughout the body [16]. PYY is significantly elevated in plasma of AD animals compared to patients and normal older individuals as well during aging in the brain [17-20].
BDNF is a neurotrophic factor which present in high concentrations several brain regions, including cerebral cortex [21]. Activation of BDNF in the human brain increases blood flow rates, improves learning, memory and neuronal survival [22-24]. BDNF is also involved in the long term synaptic plasticity and cognition [25].
Nervous system (brain, hippocampus, viagra jelly kamagra uk forebrain, cerebellum)
Nasal and bronchial epithelial cells of the brain, which have high specific surface area, were positive for the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase, as determined by [3H]-lactotripeptide (LTAP). Higher expression of LTAP in areas the brain associated with learning such as hippocampus, frontal cortex and cerebellum was found in an earlier studies [26]. A positive and robust finding was the involvement of 5-HT/Aminobutyric acid A receptor (5-HT/AgaA) heteromer in brain area, which are the most vulnerable online pharmacy courses usa for development of AD [26]. Increased expression 5-HT2α in a particular area could be the explanation [27].
Neuron migration and maturation
The neurite outgrowth pattern is determined by neurite outgrowth factor (OFX), a protein mediating neurite outgrowth in several neurodegenerative disorders [28]. the case of AD, decreased OXF levels were noted, which also noted in the CSF and CSF-plasma AD-affected brain tissue [29].
Transcription factor mRNA levels may be altered due to the reduced levels of transcriptional factors CREB p75, p24, NOS2, p27 and NOS3 proteins in the viagra uk cheapest brain regions, as well spinal cord of both young and AD patients [30, 31].
In the hippocampus and basal ganglia, we detected a significant decrease in total β-actin mRNA expression the AD patients. β-actin is a protein synthesized by neurons whose function is to guide the dendrite-like projections of dendritic spines to their destinations on target neurons and is a neuroprotective molecule in the brain [32].
Our laboratory has previously found that overexpression of NRF1/RING-domain containing 4 (RING-4B) stimulates neuronal cell migration from the dentate gyrus to cerebellums and thus contributes neuroplastic change observed in a learning disorder model of AD [33]. This overexpression leads to a reduced number of dendritic spines and has been shown to lead cognitive impairment in this model [33]. NRF1 expression is highly regulated by specific promoter regions known as CCL16, LIL1 and CLIL3 [33]. In addition, NRF1 and GSK3β inhibition has been shown to have beneficial effects on cognitive decline in AD patients as measured by neuropsychological examinations [34, 35]. Together, our results suggest the involvement of neuronal factors acting through neuroprotection pathways and modulating neurite outgrowth migration in the neurodegenerative process of AD, as an early step.
Tissue distribution/growth parameters
It has been reported that AD-depressed brain tissues, including the neocortex, hippocampus but also medial temporal lobe, as well cerebellum have been shown to be smaller, thinner, and have lower numbers of neurons [18, 36, 37].
The neuronal progenitor cell, neurons originate from the interneurons which are specialized subtypes of dendritic processes located at the post-synaptic neuromuscular junctions near axons, that allow neuronal transmission to the next neuron [38]. Recently, a large number of neurodegenerative deficits in both motor and attention-deficit disorders in AD have been found the motor nuclei of caudate nucleus, posterior thalamus and primary motor cortex. Similar findings have been reported viagra england kaufen for Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
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